At the dawn of psychoanalysis, Sigmund Freud postulated that all ailment came from frustration and led to tensions which ultimately were reflected in more or less conscious fantasies. What failed to Freud was twofold: 1-he ignored the mechanisms of the early instincts of the foetus, neonate or infant, and of the mother during the perinatal and early feeding period, the psychic work of the originary register; 2-he ignored the disturbances due to the environment, namely the parents, the family, and the clinical staff besides them. These points were missed partly from the lack of evidence of these mechanisms at this pioneering period of the art, and partly owing to the strong ideology that birth methods and early education were good and not to be discussed. In Freudian theory, mistreatment is disregarded and is deemed not to exist.
We shall show that psychoses originate mainly from the impeding of the course of the early essential ethological imprints or their prevention. The disruption of these natural fundamental processes may come from various causes:
1-accidental mishap during the birth process, the attachment process or the weaning process (such as biological childbirth complications, illness or death of the mother, involuntary absence of the father)
2-disruption of the imprinting processes due to the emotional incapacity of the parents to complete the function vis-à-vis of the child (i.e. fear of the delivery, anticipated rejection due to a fear of the infant to come, inaptitude of the mother to form a symbiosis with the child, sexual difficulties in the couple, etc.)
3-similar problems due to the failure of the society to cope with the essential imprints (for example the psychological father which gives the right environment for the woman to transform into a mother or to wean the child properly has a social component lacking in many industrialised societies)
4-deliberate, although not always conscious, attacks on these imprints from the part of the clinical staff, the mother, the father, the close parents of the couple, or even third-party. There are numerous examples of all these forms of attack with consequences ranging from severe disorders (autism, psychoses and their derivatives) to actual death.
It is important to note that some of these attacks function by rebound: some actors impede the natural functioning of another. For example, we have many instances where the neonate is taken away from the mother by the staff precisely at the critical period of bonding, thus impeding the transformation of the woman into a mother at the contact of the new-born, and producing the surge of the instinct of destruction of the unattached child in her associated with depression at its loss.
These attacks may not be unconscious: they sometimes form a part of the theory of good medicine or of good mothering, or of good education. This is the usual guise of destructive process : ideology named good. In the aetiology of the psychoses, it is therefore important to assess what set of motivations is behind the destructive act and what is its mask.
It is easy to show, from our therapy notes, and from many cases of perinatal therapy [Sandra Lantzman], and also from other analyses [for instance: Stanislav Grof, the perinatal matrixes] that in each case of autism/psychosis, when we face the root cause of the disorder, we come upon a distressing event during precisely the first or the second essential imprinting process. The third one may also have been problematic, but in the majority of the cases as a consequence of problems in the first or the second. Furthermore, the third imprint, the dissolving of the symbiosis, is a complex stretched in time motion, already cumulating on the preceding imprints, so that typical features are more difficult to isolate.
We actually found at this root level:
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loss of the vitalisation process by necessary caesarean operation before the onset of the expulsive frenzy |
| suppression of the vitalisation process by anticipated caesarean operation | ||
| suppression of the vitalisation process by anaesthesia of the mother, whether local or complete, having a strong inhibiting effect on the triggering of the frenzy in the child | ||
| disruption of the vitalisation process during the early stages of childbirth, often by chemical deceleration or acceleration of the delivery process, or by chemical stunning of the mother | ||
| systematic attack of the vitality of the neonate/infant in the early life by emotional rejection from the mother or by detrimental educational procedures | ||
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disruption of the bonding process during the critical period just after delivery, by the absence of the skin intimate contact of the new-born with the mother, by removal of the child from the mother, or by the impediment of breast feeding |
| disruption of the bonding process by diminishing or suppressing the feelings of the delivery, thus impeding the transformation of the woman into a mother | ||
| systematic attacks of the mother-child symbiosis during the breast feeding period, due to jealousy or hate around the mother, of the part of the father, of the part of family or of the part of practitioners, or due to detrimental breeding or educational procedures, or due to male domination attempting to prevent adequate feminine functioning | ||
| inaptitude of the mother to accept the bonding process and/or the symbiosis, either by the rejection of the child of by rejection of the mother state (usually unconscious) | ||
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prevention of vitalisation prevents the subsequent call for the later imprint of bonding and symbiosis |
| adverse conditions during call for bonding and/or early symbiosis, even sometimes in later symbiosis, may cause temporary of permanent regression to a prenatal stage or even to a previtalisation stage | ||
| systematic attack of the natural delivery process (rhythm and duration, position, environment, etc.), due to false birth process theories, from unconscious/conscious male aggressiveness towards women attempting to prevent feminine functioning, rejection of children, sadism, search for profit, search for fame, etc. |
When the call for imprinting has not been responded to, a disastrous process begins. First, catastrophe feelings and reactions happen, panic and distress. Then, emergency procedures appear, and when they fail, havoc; more and more drastic procedures attempt to preserve a form of psychic life, then biological life to the detriment of the psychic life, then death. These survival schemes are different whether they stem from the first or second imprint. Here is an outline of the possible outcomes:
In this case, the child is taken out of the womb by force, unprepared for the outer life, and has not got the inner automatic drive to produce the necessary reflexes of seeking contact, warmth, and food. The absence of drive entrains the absence of call for bonding (very remarkable in therapy), the absence of feelings and elementary reactions, and the absence of psychic work on the sensory inputs. The sensory outputs appear to be normal at the level of the sense organs, but there is no psychic work done to transform them into feelings, hence the no-feeling state and coldness of body usually reported. The child is simply not born and lives the life of a foetus although growing biologically as a normal infant. The external world does not exist, for want of a psychic disposition to make sense of the inputs, itself for want of an investment of the drive, which here does not exist, in the functions used to elaborate on the sensory inputs. Therefore, the child lives a uterus life and does not require nor wishes external contact. He is scared and has a reaction of retraction when one closes on him. He is indifferent to speech or other human stimuli. He is passive and soft and has no will, being subject to outbursts of violence if constrained or put into danger.
Depending on the way the mother takes him, some sort of very slow development can take place. The affective and relational functions are nil, since all the body-based functions, not being fed by vitality, are non-existent. No affective development will happen until the onset of vitality is worked on by triggering the self-expelling frenzy in a specialised setting. [see Therapy of the Psychoses]
In some cases, the self-expelling frenzy has partially or fully taken place, but the conditions met during delivery (unnatural induction during labour), during the bonding critical period (removal of the neonate, abandon or rejection by the mother), or during the beginning of the symbiosis (aggressive behaviour from staff or parents, lack of external womb and protection against dangerous stimuli), create such a danger that the child seeks by regression a safer environment, occludes the external and reverts to a stage before delivery or even before vitalisation. The result is virtually the same as in the previous case, but since vitality has set on, and is active, the womb effect is obtained by creating a sensory and muscular barrier to external stimuli, by active disinvestment and repulsion. The child is actively closed to the world, shelled in, and hard.
Depending on the welcoming of the child, some mental development can take place, since this is the only function that can work. The other affective functions are not possible, since all the vitality is used to annihilate the body-based functions. As in the previous case, no development can take place until the birth process, the onset of vitality and the event which caused regression are worked on in a specialised setting. [see Therapy of the Psychoses]
We have found a number of cases where the child is numbed during labour, probably as a result of the partial or total anaesthesia of the mother: the anaesthetic is a light molecule and diffuses easily through the placenta, in sufficient quantities to produce a significant change of state in a highly sensitive baby of 3 kilograms. The vitalisation reflex is thus suppressed and the baby is taken out in an impotent and helpless condition.
As for the mother, anaesthetics can produce a hold in the labour and irregular or absent contractions. Yet, the contractions are essential in triggering the onset of the freeing frenzy, and of the whole vitalisation reflex. In some births, oxytocin is used to accelerate contractions, but produces abnormal ones, largely excessive and painful. The mother usually respond by disinvesting the former established relation with the child and safeguarding herself by concentrating on her pain. This provokes an abandonment perfectly felt by the child, in the loss of the necessary synergetic effort of the mother, and a panic which may result in stopping the expelling frenzy. In those cases where chemical manipulation is used to modify the rhythm and the strength of the contractions, heavy defects of the vitality may occur, and sometimes leads to its complete absence.
Distraction of the mother from the natural needs for proper labour and delivery by psychological means also occur: pressure to deliver rapidly, induction of pushing hard, the presence of males, an unsuitable and distressing position such as lying on the back with legs wide open in the presence of unknown masculine staff, imposition by force or by seduction of unknown or non-accepted methods or products, authoritative attitudes producing fear and submission, imposing and pressuring, are attitudes of the staff generally detrimental to the already present link between mother and child, to the natural course of the labour, to the synergy between the contraction rhythm and the vitalisation reflex, and to the subsequent smooth passage from the inner womb to the outer womb, and to the construction of this external womb.
The child's first reflex is to get the body of the mother, the warmth, the heartbeat (already known) and the breast, for safety and continuity. This reflex is automatically triggered by the contact with the outside when the vitality is on. If the contact with her body is refused by the mother , if the child is taken away, or if the mother is anaesthetised, or numbed, or shocked, or indifferent, or even rejecting for some reason, the absence of the proper response is a catastrophe to the child. At this point the psyche explodes from the incapability to process so much pain. Then, in the approximate severity sequence, the child experiences:
The absence of the bonding reflex in the child points in most cases to the lack of vitalisation. In some occurrences, the baby is shocked or stunned by an especially difficult labour, and the call for contact may not come at once and has to be solicited or favoured by the mother.
The absence of the bonding reflex in the mother may have many reasons: personal emotional problems, inadequate environment, or detrimental practice during labour.
Emotional problems may be numerous, ranging from the unconscious rejection of sex in the first place, and the child in the second, from being rejected or feeling rejected by the father, even before conception is envisaged, to the inability to face the maternity staff, or the baby, or the symbiosis phenomenon. Environmental problems are numerous, especially in clinical situations where the woman loses the power on herself and on the baby, and where the intimacy which should more or less correspond to the intimacy of the conception moments is broken.
A number of mothers would have easily bonded to their new-born and entered the symbiotic state with happiness and reward had the medical staff not prevented it. A relatively small number of mothers are unable to face the call for bonding, owing to their own psychological resonance, or could face it only with the assistance of a specialised psychologist. Subjugation of the mother and father in a moment of emotional importance conducing to the enforcement of irrational and inadequate childbirth methods is often a cause of faulty imprinting.
So-called technical reasons or non-psychologically evaluated current practices are especially numerous in the inhibition of the bonding reflex of the mother. Here is a selection of them:
A mother prevented to bond to her baby is also in a state of distress which may easily pass unobserved. First, she does not know or make sense of what is happening, feels disoriented if the baby is taken from her, she may loses her notions, or he ability to reason or to call for help or to express her distress. Second, she may lose the emotional capacity of recognising the baby she is presented to later as the one she had in her belly a few moments ago. Third, the openness and receptivity to the contact of the new-born she is in just after delivery (the critical bonding window) soon fades away and she is left in a somewhat insensitive and indifferent state (due also to the shock of having "lost" her baby). Fourth, there is an automatic rebound reflex which begins to appear, the urge to cast away, abandon or kill this baby who is not the one she had in her womb. This reflex is common to all mammals, but can cause a great confusion in most mothers.
In order to recognise the outer baby as the same as the inner one, a number of steps have to be taken into account. Continuity is ensured by feelings, principally that of mastering the whole process from the early contractions to the contact on the breast, and by sensations, especially those of helping the baby during his efforts to come out and those of the progression of the new-born in the tractus. Skin to skin contact of the new-born with the breast draws with it the touch, the smell, the vivacity of the child which are all part of the shock necessary to produce the continuity between the feelings of the foetus and those of the new-born, and the bonding reflex. The hormonal changes for labour and for lactation are also part of the transformation which ensures the continuity foetus - infant.
It has been from long ago recognised that many heavy disorders such as the psychoses come from the rejection of the child, whether the mother is conscious of it or not, in various forms [Anna Freud]. What was not said at this time was that a "normal" mother, ready for symbiosis and children care, may very easily become a rejecting mother if the maternity staff, the father's behaviour, or other environmental circumstances, interfere with the bonding and symbiotic process. With all mammals, any slight intervention on the mother or on the offspring during and right after delivery (like touching the new-born, preventing smelling, touching or seeing the small one), causes rejection, destruction of the offspring by the mother, or its abandonment to the predators. It has also been shown that a female who has been isolated or has not been raised with peers during childhood is likely to ignore the young after its birth, step on it like inanimate objects, or treat it with brutality [Harry F. Harlow].
Postpartum depression is the regular consequence of the lack of symbiosis, or rather of the rupture of the pregnancy symbiosis without its natural extension during the first months of the infant's life. It is caused by the loss of the child (this is how it is felt when bonding has not taken place), by the repression of the rejection of the child, and by guilt or remorse and the feeling of being a bad mother. Many mothers during therapy talk about these feelings not understanding them and how they were born to them.
In some cases, the indifference or hate which arises at birth has been present in the history of the mother since infancy, or cumulates on her previous unconscious contempt or hate of males, of authorities, or on early self-hate and/or envy projected onto babies.
The same sort of feelings may occur to the father if he is taken away from the birth scene or do not play the correct role. Attachment between father and child, although of a different kind from that of the mother, also necessitates proper childbirth procedures to happen. Many fathers could have been taken by the bond with their children had they participated to the labour and delivery in the correct way. The attachment with the father comes into play later on when dissolving the symbiosis is needed.
In the new-born, if attachment has not taken place, a double process sets on: try and restart the imprinting processes (absent or faulty) when an occasion seems possible; cope with the situation as it is without the skeleton of the imprints. Much then depends on the actual mother: if she is benevolent (although ridden by confusion and guilt), some amount of repair can take place; if she is herself in too much difficulty in her relation with the child, and taken over by her own infancy patterns of jealousy, fear, destruction and so on, on the contrary, she is likely to add to the traumas of faulty imprinting by mistreating the child, depriving him of the necessary contact, respect and love, starving him in his essential needs, and accusing him of being a difficult child.
The absence of the mother's body has no pre-established meaning in the child's psyche and the child cannot make sense of an event for which he has no built-in program. Therefore, such an event will be recorded as unaccountable for, an out of the human range horror, a sheer destruction without meaning. This untold pain produces immense efforts to alarm the environment that something urgent and dramatic is taking place. If no response is had, rage will set on, to try release the enormous amount of tension and keep potent. Then despair and emergency procedures will start. The urge to kill the unresponsive mother so often found in therapy settings is part of the rage to survive by killing the destructive object, and also the mother's unconscious urge to kill the child transferred to it's psyche and acted out (since the child cannot hold nor repress that motion). This transference response is the root of later similar acting out in life.
The urge to kill the mother is but the mother's urge to kill the child transferred into the child's psyche and acted out by him.
Coping with the absence of the mother's body in the first place amounts to cope with torture. The excess of pain to be managed instantly provokes a tentative reduction of the sensations which can be done in two steps:
cutting the sensations, which amounts to separating from the body and thus from the reality of the outer world
cutting the vitality to prevent sensing and reacting
Thus, body isolation is the very current first solution found in the heavy disorders produced by the early isolation of the child. It will remain in later life as a lack of sensitivity, a lack of response, an impossibility of building up the natural emotional response and relational communication schemes and a confused or inadequate function of sentiment (which is body based). In some occurrences, it will handicap other types of intelligence out of fear and unfulfilled narcissistic needs.
The nonsense of the originary trauma will also produce a difficulty to make sense of life, motivation, others, and community. If one attempts to make a logic of the nonsense of sheer inhuman destruction, which is the originary experience, one will end mad since we have no built-in program to account for non-instinctual behaviour. All what is foreign to mammal and human built-in instinctual programs (including the ability to cope with natural catastrophes and predators) will meet a void of ready elementary "explanation" (here in the originary, ethological, and instinctual response range). We have an absolute necessity of making sense of what is happening, which will then be at a loss and the psychic process will eventually stop and shatter into pieces. This is the onset of the early delirium which is very common to babies although it seems to have passed unnoticed in many instances.
We have actually found in most cases that the response to the isolation or rejection of the new-born is of delirious type. Since in this originary register there are no fantasies nor words to elaborate on the purely body event and release tensions (no primary nor secondary register yet), the response is a `body delirium' (or a delirious acting out). It is the loss of the ordinary set of sensations of the body (section of the body) and a raise into a supersensitive state where much refined feelings come directly to the psyche from the surroundings and tell much more than the ordinary senses. In this state, there is a perception of what is going on behind the masks of the "normal" and conformist appearance of the persons present and a regain of meaning, but to the price of losing the natural trust and confidence in adults, the completely relaxed and safe state which is natural to new-borns when carried by their mothers. This is a highly defensive state.
Thus, in the normal state, the psyche remains blocked or split, avoids the risk of stalling, facing the blank behind which lies the terrifying recording left by the event, and in a state of acute tension. In unsafe conditions, close to that of the initial event (evoking too much pain), it may have recourse repetitively to that supersensitive state where things and people take a different appearance and show their hidden intentions (which is the true appearance they had during the unaccountable originary event). In later life, if this recourse to the superstate can be worded, the person will speak in plain words of the originary event, but in the logic of that event, and with the actual motives of the past actors, which many hearers will not wish to recognise as a truth and will tax of "loss of reason" to try and get rid of the problem raised by the revelation.
Another manoeuvre that is possible after the initial despair stage is to create a "false symbiosis" with the mother. Since she is not transformed by imprinting into a natural mother, true symbiosis is not possible, but the creation of a mutual parasitic bond is sometimes possible (a dual parasitosis). It is surprising to see how much a young monkey clings to an abusing surrogate mother whatever the bad treatment "she" keeps giving it [Harry F. Harlow]. Similarly, Anna Freud pointed out the strength of the bond of children being abused, or being alternatively abused and cuddled. Conversely to the symbiosis where a phase of separation and mutual independence is reached relatively easily during the second year, the parasitic bond seem to be very resistant to the forces of separation and independence which may grow in each.
This is due to the large benefit both gain from this detrimental, even in some cases lethal, arrangement. For the mother, she gains the appearance of a good mother and the parasitic bond is a good part of the mask she badly needs. It also fulfils her tension release needs, tensions from her past reactivated by the presence of an unwanted child, especially if the child is lively, uninhibited and demanding (unbonded children are usually more demanding than bonded ones, except when they are non-vitalised, devitalised or deactivated). Thirdly, the child can be a addictive object, i.e. an outer object necessary to maintain her frail balance on the verge of rupture (incipient decompensation)[see Addictions]. The child is (sometimes from the conception) just felt and used as a supplementary organ of her.
The child benefits from this by rendering his mother less terrible than if she does not use him as a crutch, since she would then probably decompensate and he will lose her or face a rougher treatment than he now has. Second, it maintains a slight hope that she will changed and that the future might be fairer than the present. Third, the mother also can be used as an addictive object and help sustain a state currently bordering decompensation. The absence of bonding has left an immense void in the child that is better filled by a fight for life than nothing. Actual absence or isolation would recall the originary event with full pain; struggling with a toxic object is the opposite of such a re-living and therefore actively sought as a saving device. The mother is then an indispensable part of his psyche [see Addictions].
However, the mutual parasitic scheme is an unstable system and oscillates between attempts of destruction of the other and protection against destruction. What was not expected in this arrangement is that either repetitively or slowly building up in time, the original event will be reactivated, replayed and re-enacted, owing to the natural tendency to relive the originary trauma seeking the freeing of the associated tensions. And in this respect both the originary trauma of the child and that of the mother.
Another surprising feature found by many clinicians is that of attempting to love and repair the mother, that is a sacrificial attitude of the child in the hope that the mother will eventually come to milder terms. Thus we have in this type of history both a sacrifice of the child on the altar of conformity, and a sacrificial resignation of the child attempting a redemption of the parent.
We have seen above that in very adverse conditions, the psyche will seek to revert to the much safer condition it had before birth. This is an actual psychic death implying renouncing to life in the outer real world and growth.
Death often comes unexpected after the despair phase if the suffering is too high and the hope too weak. Clients testimony of loss of the hold to the normal state, a fall without possible stop in a black void, and a state of a horrible no-command.
How they have survived to that death and came to a surrogate life then is usually not known. But they do not come back whole, a good part or the totality of their vitality is gone, and they usually live passively and driven by the other's motives, with sometimes a certain awareness of being "behind a glass", in an other world than the others who appear to move on their own drive.
This is the last possible outcome of this fight for survival. If it does not happen in the first weeks of life, it very often reappears in the course of adolescence as a attempt to suicide, or later in life when circumstances recall the originary event, which is more or less bound to happen.
The early infant death, usually around 2-3 months, when not of biological origin, is fully accounted for by the above described process and is actually a suicide under forced conditions, very similar to the post-traumatic deaths.
In order not to complicate the vocabulary, we here use the standard names of autism, psychosis and paranoia to describe the various psychic structures generated from early traumas. But we do not relate them to symptoms, following the theorem that symptoms are the product of a definite structure and of the situation, principally the transferential situation, so that symptoms refer as much to the observer as to the person under study, and can not be used as a testimony of the structure.
Here, autism, psychosis, and paranoia refer to definite missing or faulty imprint, therefore to a definite structure. The innumerable variations in the outcomes of faulty imprinting can be thus classified by the type of imprinting which had been had early in life. In the following presentation, we use the simplifying on/off binary description of imprinting, thus leaving us with only a few canonical cases. The other source of variation is that of the subsequent history after the faulty imprinting has taken place. The vitality pushes
Therefore, there are bridges between elementary disorders, in either direction: worsening and regression to a former state, bettering and progression to a more advanced state. Progression may try to occur even without having had a correct imprint: this is the reason why we meet seemingly advanced stages which bear heavy disturbances.
Here is a chart showing the canonical of heavy disorders and of their genesis by impeding correct imprinting.
The above chart is more or less self-explanatory and represents the possible paths following yes or no imprinting (here taken as binary responses for simplicity).
The autistic series is the type of disorders one has when the first imprint, vitalisation, has not been had, and the child is unborn, or has regressed to a prenatal stage, the child is born, vitalised but shelled in, or has regressed to a previtalisation stage, the child is vitalised but deactivated.
The psychotic series is the type of disorders one has when the child is vitalised but has lost or has been refused the natural symbiosis. The child is then either: deprived of major functions, the feeling and reaction ability, the integrity, or the drive; alienated to the mother, i.e. has become an organ of hers; disinvested, i.e. oscillating between disintegration and suicide, fits of violence and depression.
The paranoid series is the type of disorders one has when the two first imprints have been correctly had, but separation from the mother has not taken place, owing to the absence of a real role active father or the absence of a symbolic or social father. This case is relatively rare and do not show much in therapy settings. It has a strong similarity to the environment of antisocial personalities, and it is possible that what we call primary paranoia (at least in some forms) is akin to psychopathic personality. Most of the structural paranoid types come from an evolution of one of the psychotic series case. Typically, the paranoid type is in a negative symbiosis or parasitosis with the world where the original aggressor or persecutor is the whole environment.
The step that we have to face when dealing with psychotic phenomena is to leave behind
In the psychoses, on the contrary, we actually face
[see also Anna Freud, Stanislav Grof, Piera Aulagnier]
How do we then come to ignore such early disasters leaving a so unbearable suffering that it cannot be even slightly touched without creating those special ways of managing the pain that we call crisis, depression or delirium?
Reliving the original scene leaves no doubt that at the same time these crippling events were taking place a disposition of the environment was creating a veil on the recording. Actually:
The last item of the above method, that of enforcing a standard language, knowledge, and discourse labelled by high values, has been shown to be a disposition to prevent free thinking and retrieval of what has been done to us at birth and during infancy. This prohibition to think is done by negative methods, such as "do not do that" or do not say so and so" etc;, but also by positive methods such as the imposition to think in a certain way. This is done by the lack of certain forms in the language which, in our occidental system, prevents the expression of some modes which would be useful in exposing in particular inner events or early events or relational events. This is completed by the absence in the vocabulary of words pertaining to notions that the whole of the society does not want to hear about. It is also done by creating specific names of adjectives used for the degradation, the depreciation or even the removal and suppression of the individual from the social stage.
[see B. L. Whorff, Language, Thought and Reality, 1956; Ludwig Von Bertalanffy, General System Theory, 1968; Piera Aulagnier, L'apprenti historien et le maître sorcier, 1993, pp. 237-263; La violence de l'interprétation, 1991, pp. 232-363 ; Kutchins and Kirk, Making Us Crazy. DSM: the Psychiatric Bible and the Creation of Mental Disorders, 1997]
This is precisely the reason why very little work on the real events generating psychosis has been done, few professionals have devised methods to reach the core of our structure, or that little attention has been paid to the testimonies of those who have undertaken reliving their archaic lives in specific therapeutic settings. One has to lift the veil of his own infancy before accrediting the actuality of the terrible events which have taken place at the dawn of life, and this can be done only by procedures which are contra-variant to the enforced mainstream knowledge and methods which were all designed to produce oblivion and false sense.
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